The Effects Of Eating Disorders On Health - 872 Words

Health can be expressed in many different ways: physical health is easily identified by an individual’s ability to perform tasks with agility, endurance or speed. There are ways to enhance these factors through exercise and healthy eating as well as regular health screenings. However, there is another facet of human health that is less easily identified: mental health. Mental health impacts everyone in varying ways and in varying degrees. Sometimes the symptoms are easily identified, such as with schizophrenia disorders, but other times, the symptoms are hidden and the sufferers remain in silence until the situation becomes dire. In the case of an eating disorder, the disease is not usually made visible to the people around the sufferer, and it’s a long, painful road to recovery. Even with a medical â€Å"all-clear,† the effects can be life-altering and permanent. The onset of eating disorders are often attributable to low self-esteem or bodily insecurity, which could lower sex drive on its own; however, the physical, emotional, and mental toll the disease-and recovery from it-wreaks on the afflicted could forever change how they view and participate in sex or intimate encounters. The physical effects of an eating disorder are varied across the board, but typically, a loss of menstruation (amenorrhea), slowing of estrogen production, infertility, an increase in stress hormone production, fertility problems, and other non-sexual health related problems come from low body-weightShow MoreRelatedEating Disorder Outline951 Words   |  4 Pagesis eating disorder. Central Idea: informative speech about the three type of eating disorder which are Anorexia Nervosa, Binge Eating Disorder and Bulimia Nervosa. Then my second point will focus on the causes of eating disorder, after that in my last main point I will discuss its effects on our life. I. Introduction A. Tie to audience Food too much of it, we suffer, and too lack of it, we will suffer. Because of it human has lost their sanity and it’s the main cause of most health issuesRead MoreLong Term Effects of Childhood Separation Anxiety1230 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Long-Term Effects of Childhood Separation Anxiety Abstract This report delves into the connection between childhood separation anxiety disorder and the long-term implications that it may have. To understand the connections I preformed secondary research through â€Å"Academic Search Complete†. I found that childhood separation anxiety disorder is connected with serious mental disorders, such as anorexia, bulimia, social phobias, depression, and behavior disorders. Many studies have shown that childhoodRead MoreThe Dangerous Effects of Eating Disorders1100 Words   |  5 PagesThe Dangerous Effects of Eating Disorders You probably hear about eating disorders, and how they can be do dangerous, but what are eating disorders exactly? Eating disorders are a groups of serious conditions in which you are so preoccupied with the food that you eat and how much you weigh, you often focus on little else (http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/eating-disorders/basics/definition/con-20033575 ). There are three main types of eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is the fear ofRead MoreCauses And Consequences Of Eating Disorders1608 Words   |  7 Pages The eating disorders, Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa are psychological life threatening disorders that are becoming more common in today’s society. When an eating disorder is developed, the victim is not always aware of the oral consequences he or she will have to endure. This review of research indicates the risks and consequences associated with eating disorders and oral health. Introduction It is estimated that up to 24 million Americans suffer from serious eating disorders suchRead MoreEating Disorders And Eating Disorder1573 Words   |  7 Pagesaffects people called an â€Å"eating disorder.† Why did you choose this topic? I chose this topic because it is a very prevalent issue in our society today, and a close friend of mine is suffering from an eating disorder. What question(s) did you want to answer or what was your hypothesis regarding this topic? As mammals, there is no chance of escaping the need to consume food in everyday life. However, when it comes to food there can be a major concern of eating too much or eating too little. Doing eitherRead MoreEating Disorders Essay698 Words   |  3 Pagesstressors and pressures, the cycle is begun and an eating disorder is formed. Effects The altered eating and exercise patterns of those with eating disorders can seriously damage physical and emotional health. The ANAB (n.d.) contends activities associated with eating disorders place one in medical danger. Strenuous over-exercising is often seen in those with eating disorders even though they may be quite ill. The body of an eating disorder sufferer frequently has electrolyte imbalances andRead MoreThe Impact Of Mass Media On Body Image1255 Words   |  6 PagesAnyone who has ever been online has seen food, transformation, or other health related images and videos on social media, online magazines/blogs, and mass media in general. Mass media has caused an enormous amount of controversy within the last few years concerning body image and what is politically correct. However, mass media’s impact on health can be beneficial if it is used the correct way. The social media aspect of mass media has become something that is involved in most people’s everyd ay lives;Read MoreA Brief Note On Anorexia Nervosa And Bulimia Nervosa1280 Words   |  6 PagesAnorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa Eating disorders are classified as mental disorders and can lead to life threatening damage. It is important to manage eating disorders to prevent health effects. There are many different possibilities for patients with disorders. Common treatments for eating disorders can consists of counselor or therapists. Early detection is important to limit future oral health effects. A dental hygienist has an advantage to see the inside of the mouth for possible traumaRead MoreUnit 5 Essay1106 Words   |  5 Pages Part 1: Know about different eating disorders 1a. Describe at least two different eating disorders. Eating disorder 1: Bulimia Nervosa is a disorder characterised by consuming massive amount in calories in a form on binge eating and then getting rid of them through laxatives or vomiting. There may be social signs or psychological signs like social isolation. Eating disorder 2: Anorexia Nervosa is the most well-known and popular of eating disorders yet it is the least common. It isRead MoreEating Disorders in Adolescents1223 Words   |  5 PagesEating Disorders in Adolescents Eating Disorders in Adolescents Introduction Eating disorder in adolescents is a source of grave alarm. An effective definition of eating disorders, as they are evident in school surroundings, describes victim of eating disorder as being extensively anxious and conscious about food, weight, and body shape. This results in being engaged in strange eating behaviors (Gowers Bryant-Waugh, 2004). This paper seeks to investigate the effects of eating disorders on adolescents

Communication Studies Ia - 1609 Words

********** | Communication Studies – Internal Assessment | Lower 6 Science 2 | Teacher: ******** | TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PREFACE REFLECTIVE PIECE ANALYTICAL CONCLUSION APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION The theme of â€Å"Technology† and topic of â€Å"Artificial Intelligence in Society† was chosen as I found it very intruding because I grew up being exposed to all sorts of technological and electronic equipment. I have always been interested in technology and I have always tried to keep up with its rapid advances. My target audience is teenagers between the ages of 16-19 years of age. From previous knowledge, I have found that the term artificial intelligence is commonly misinterpreted and tied to robots who†¦show more content†¦You no longer need pages of blue prints to follow. This device will store all your instructions and can be easily altered at the touch of your fingers. [Touches face of board]. MR. SMITH [Mr. Brown quietly]: You know, that could make your job easier. Imagine no more papers and being able to see what the building will look like without drawing it. MR. BROWN [with a slightly louder tone]: Buh is ah flat piece ah plastic with no knobs! I accustom to readin my blue papers an using meh good ole t-square when I hadda change ah error. PROF. GREGORY: Any questions about the Architects’ Worker? [Mr. Brown stands up from his seat to address the professor.] MR. BROWN: Wa bout we old peeps? We doh know how to wok dem kinda smart techno ting. [Mr Smith covers his face and slouches on his chair] PROF. GREGORY [raising his eyebrows]: I beg your pardon sir? Would you be courteous to repeat your sentence? MR. SMITH [whispering to Mr. Brown sternly]: Brown! Speak properly! MR. BROWN: Err...What about us older people? We don’t have young brains. We’re too old to use that. PROF. GREGORY: Well sir, if you are uncertain that you wouldn’t be able to use it, I can assure you that you will be able to. MR. BROWN: Well what makes you say this? 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Hcm Chapter 10 11 12 Free Essays

string(329) " focusing on properties of objects without considering surrounding context \(individualistic culture influence\) Eastern: Holistic Thinking – focus on the overall context, in ways that objects relate to each other \(collective culture\) Controlled thinking thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful\." CHAPTER 1 Social Influence The effect that words, actions, or presence of people have on our attitudes, thoughts, feelings and behavior Construal The way people interpret the social environment. (How do you construe someone’s behavior? Is it polite, rude etc? ) Individual differences aspects of personalities that makes people unique Social psych analyses the individual in the context of a social situation, and it aims to identify universal human nature traits that makes everyone susceptible to social influences, regardless of social class or culture Fundamental attribution error xplaining our own or other peoples’ behavior based on personality characteristics alone. Underestimates social influence Behaviorism Approach to understanding behavior through only reinforcing properties of events. We will write a custom essay sample on Hcm Chapter 10 11 12 or any similar topic only for you Order Now (Positive, negative, punishment, operant conditioning) Gestalt psych Studies subjective way in which an object appears in peoples’ minds, rather than the objective, physical attributes of the subject. Like perceiving a painting as a whole instead of the sum of its parts. Self-esteem The degree to which one views oneself as good, competent and decent Social cognition how people select, interpret, remember and use social information to make judgments and decisions. CHAPTER 2 Hindsight Bias Exaggeration of how much one could predict an outcome after knowing that it already happened Observational method No random assignment, not experimental, view and record measurements of natural behavior Difficult to analyse certain behavior which occur rarely or in private (peoples’ willingness to help a rape victim Ethnography Study of cultures by observing from the inside ie being a part of it Interrater reliability eliability of an experiment based on level of agreement from 2 or more independent judges Archival analysis Secondary source information based on historical records like newspapers, diaries etc. But information is limited and may be incomplete or inaccurate, and there is no way to prove it Correlational method 2 variables that are measured and linear relationship observed Correlation coefficient degree to which 2 variables a re directly related to one another Surveys Asked questions about attitudes or behavior Can judge relationship between variables that are difficult to observe and are capable of sampling representative segments of the population Random selection To ensure good representation. Experimental method random assignment to different conditions, ensuring that there is no bias Each respondent has equal chance of being picked with no bias. Ensures conditions are identical except for the independent variable Independent variable Variable that is changed to see if it has an effect on some other variable Dependent variable Variable that is influenced by the independent variable. Dependent variable depends on the level of independent variable. p-value Significant if the value is less than 5% that the results might be due to chance factors. Internal validity Degree to which items within the test measure the construct. Nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable. By controlling for all extraneous variables and random assignment External validity Extent to which experiment can be generalised to other situations Psychological realism extent to which psychological process in an experiment are similar to those that occur in everyday life Cover story disguised version of a study’s true purpose. This increases psych realism as the story makes people feel they are in a real event. Field research Increases external validity by studying behavior outside the lab in natural settings Replications Ultimate test of external validity. Generalised to different settings, people etc. Meta-analysis Averages results of 2 or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable. Basic research Done purely out of curiosity to find answers Applied research Intends to solve particular problems Cross-cultural research Research done with other cultures to see if psychological processes are present or if unique to certain cultures Informed consent Agreement to participate, full awareness of the nature of experiment that is explained in advance Deception Misleading participants about true purpose of study Institutional review board reviews reasearch and its ethicality before allowing it to be conducted. must include at least 1 scientist, nonscientist and person nonaffiliated with institution. Debriefing Explaining to participants the true purpose of study and what transpired at the end of the experiment. CHAPTER 3 Automatic thinking Unconscious, involuntary, effortless Controlled thinking is more effortful and deliberate Schemas mental structures that organise our knowledge about the social world, which influence the information we notice, think and remember. Applied to race or sex, schemas are stereotypes. We have schemas because they help us figure out whats going on. Accessibility extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of peoples’ minds and therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world. Priming Automatic thinking. Process by which recent experiences increase accessibility of a schema, trait or concept. ome chronically accessible due to past experience – constantly active and ready to use to interpret ambiguous situations accessible because it is related to a current goal accessible because of recent experiences Self-fulfilling Prophecy Prediction that causes an event to come true based on positive reinforcements between belief and behavior Peoples ex pectations of what another is like - influences how they act to the person - causes a reaction consistent with peoples’ original expectations -; makes expectations come true Often occurs but in some occasions, peoples’ true nature will win out in social interaction Judgmental heuristic mental strategy and shortcut to make quick and effective judgments. Using schemas. Availability heuristic Basing a judgment on self or others on the ease with which you bring something to mind. Linked to accessibility. But sometimes what is easily recalled is not typical of overall picture, leading to wrong conclusions Representativeness heuristic Classifying something according to how similar it is to a typical case. Like how similar Wang Nan is to all China people. Or scoring well in tests because asian Base Rate Information Information about relative frequency of members of different categories in the population Contents of our Schemas is influenced by our culture Differences in Western and Eastern Culture Western: Analytic Thinking – focusing on properties of objects without considering surrounding context (individualistic culture influence) Eastern: Holistic Thinking – focus on the overall context, in ways that objects relate to each other (collective culture) Controlled thinking thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful. You read "Hcm Chapter 10 11 12" in category "Essay examples" Can switch on and off at will. Counterfactual thinking mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been. Aiyah why never get gold but i got silver Thought suppression Attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget. Like ex gf, stomachache etc. Monitoring process – automatic part, searches for evidence that the unwanted thought is about to intrude the consciousness. Then the operating process – controlled part comes into play. The effortful attempt to distract oneself by finding something else to think of. When one is lacking in energy or preoccupied (under cognitive load), the operating process lets the intruding thought go unchecked leading to hyperaccessibility – the unwanted thought occurs with high frequency The ore you try not to think of something, the more it intrudes. Overconfidence barrier People usually have too much confidence in the accuracy of judgments (sure pass! sure this sure that) break this barrier by addressing overconfidence directly, giving possibility of them being wrong teach people directly some basic statistical and methodological principles to learn how to rea son correctly, and hoping they will apply these principles CHAPTER 4 Social Perception study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about others Nonverbal communication how people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without words. ody language, touch etc. Mirror neurons brain cell that respond when we perform an action and when we see someone else perform the same action. When people yawn, we yawn. automatically and involuntarily. Encode Express nonverbal behavior like smiling Decode To interpret the meaning of nonverbal behavior. was the smile genuine or sarcastic 6 major emotions that can be recognised cross-culturally happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Maybe contempt and pride. Affect blends one part of the face registers one emotion while another part registers a ifferent emotion. blend of anger and disgust. This makes decoding sometimes inaccurate Display rules particular to each culture, and dictate the type of emotions people should show. Emblems gestures with clear, well understood definitions – middle finger, gangsta Implicit personality theory Type of schema used to group various personality traits together. Someone who is kind is also generous Relying on schemas might lead us to make wrong assumptions, might even resort to sterotype One culture’s implicit personality theory might be different from another. America has â€Å"Artistic personality† but Chinese have no schema for that. Attribution theory how we infer causes of people’s behavior Internal attribution Attribute a behavior to someone’s personal traits didn’t give money cos selfish External attribution Attribute behavior to a situation outside of person’s traits didn’t give money cos train was coming Covariation model To form a rational and logical attribution about what caused a behavior, we note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs. why she dont lend me? did she use to lend me? does she lend to others? † Consensus information extent to which others behave the same way towards the same stimulus as me (low consensus: boss only yells at me) Distinctiveness info how the actor responds to other stimuli (low distinctiveness: boss yells at others too) Consistency information frequency with which the observed behav ior between same actor and same stimulus occur over time and circumstance (high consistency: boss yells at me everytime he sees me) When the above info combine into a pattern, attribution is made. Internal attribution – consensus and distinctiveness low, consistency high External attribution – consensus, distinctiveness, consistency high Situational attribution – assumes something unusual because consistency low. People rely more on consistency and distinctiveness info and less on consensus info. Correspondence bias Tendency to infer that peoples’ behavior corresponds to their dispositions and personality. I sit on reserved seat because i am disrespectful Perceptual salience seeming importance of information that is the focus of people’s attention. If we can’t see the situation, we ignore its importance. e pay attention to people instead (easier to see than the situation) and tend to think that they cause their own behavior. Two step process of making attributions 1. Internally attribute. (quickly and spontaneously) 2. Then adjust this attribution by considering the situation the person was in. But often, we don’t adjust enough, and when we are distracted or preoccupied, we skip this step, making an extreme internal attribution. (requires effort and conscious attention) if we consciously slow down and think carefully, and if we’re motivated to reach an accurate judgment, we will go the 2nd step. Actor/observer difference tendency to see other people’s behavior as caused by personality but to see one’s own behavior as caused by situations Because of perceptual salience – notice other’s behavior more than the situation. notice our own situation more than our behavior. What is most salient to me? i don’t always look inward. I look outward and therefore my situation more than myself. Because of information availability. I know more about myself so have more consistency and distinctiveness information about myself. and therefore EXTERNALLY ATTRIBUTE. Self-serving attribution endency to take credit for my success by internal attribution, but blame others or situation for failure. Really just want to maintain self-esteem by doing so. We also just want others to think well of us. Due to the type of information available to people, I know i didn’t score well for the test because it is unfair. I know i am smart. but my teacher thinks i am stup id. Different info. Defensive attributions explanations for behavior that defend us from vulnerability and mortality feelings believing that bad things only happen to bad people. or terminal diseases happen to us and we take steps to deny the fact. Belief in a just world) In countries with extreme rich and poor, just world beliefs are more common, compared with countries with more evenly distributed wealth. Self-serving bias prevalent in many western societies but less in Asian cultures where values of modesty and harmony is valued (china, japan etc) Individualistic cultures – look outside themselves to explain failure Collectivistic cultures – look inward to explain failure, garnering sympathy and compassion which strengthens harmony between people CHAPTER 5 Self-concept knowledge about who we are Self-awareness act of thinking about ourselves Cocktail party effect – in a crowded room yu catch someone say ur name with selective attention. after hearing own name in irrelevant stream, percentage of errors for the relevant stream increased spotlight effect – mistaken impressino that ppl are noticing u actually only 23% Self-awareness and self-concept combine to create identity. As children, we have concrete self-concepts, referencing clear-cut observable characteristics like age, sex, hobbies. As adults, we emphasise psychological states and considerations of how others judge us Independent view of self Defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions. Interdependent view of self Defining oneself in terms of relationships with others and recognising that behavior is often determined by thought, feelings, and actions of others. Westerns take more to independent sense of self than Asian culture. Women have more relational interdependence – focusing more on relationships. More likely to discuss emotions than men Men have collective interdependence – focusing on memberships in larger groups. Like sports teams Self-awareness theory when people focus attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare behavior to internal standards and values. hen people are self-aware, it reminds them of a sense of right and wrong and are less likely to err. East asians likely to have outside perspective of self (how others see them). Western have insider perspective (individualistic) Causal theories Theories about what influences feelings and behavior like â€Å"absence makes the heart grow fonder† Reason-generated attitude change a ttitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for your attitudes. you assume your attitude matches the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise. break up because she chews gum loudly. Self-perception theory when our feelings and attitudes are uncertain, we infer the feelings by observing our behavior and the situation which it occurs. We infer only when we are not sure how we feel. And we judge whether our behavior really reflects how we feel or because it is the situation that made us act that way. not sure if i like classical music. but i listen to 92. 4 willingly. therefore i must love classical music. if gf listens to korean song and not me who tuned in, then i am unlikely to conclude that i listen because i like it Intrinsic motivation esire to engage in an activity because i enjoy it Extrinsic motivation desire to engage because of the rewards that come with it According to self-perception theory, If i were initially intrinsically motivated, but was instead paid to do it, the motivation will slowly change to extrinsic and i’ll eventually lose pure interest for it. Over-justification effect results when i view my behavior as caused by extrinsic reasons , making me underestimate the extent to which the behavior is caused by intrinsic reasons Task-contingent rewards rewards for doing a task regardless of results Performance-contingent rewards rewards from how well i perform a task 2 factor theory of emotion idea that emotional experience is a result of a 2-step self-perception process in which i first experience physiological arousal then seek an appropriate explanation for it. Misattribution of arousal making mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do standing on a swaying bridge and receiving a request to do a survey from a chiobu. your initial heightened heart rate due to the scary bridge is misattributed to u liking the girl Appraisal theories of emotion Your emotion depends on the way you interpret or explain the event, in the absense of psychological arousal. You want to go med sch. your friend gets in instead. you feel threatened and therefore moody. Fixed mindset we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change. fixed intelligence, athletic ability etc. likely to give up after setbacks. less likely to hone skills Growth mindset abilities are malleable qualities that can cultivate and grow. view setbacks as opportunities to improve Social comparison theory learn about own abilities and attitudes by comparing with others Downward social comparison compare with someone lousier to feel better about myself Upward social comparison compare with someone better to have a goal to strive towards Social tuning groups of friends or people adopting similar attitudes through social influence Self-regulatory resource model stats that we must have plenty of energy when we are trying to control our actions. Suggests that the level of glucose in the bloodstream is spent when we exert self-control Impression management attempt to get others to see me the way i want to be seen. Facebook Ingratiation using flattery or praise to make myself likeable to another, often a higher-status person (ANGKAT) self-handicapping people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, people avoid blaming themselves. Self-handicap by creating obstacles that reduce the likelihood they will succeed on a task. So if they fail, they blame on these obstacles rather than lack of ability. Includes drugs, alcohol, failure to prepare Also by devising ready-made excuses in case they fail. Test anxiety, moods, symptoms, events from the past. We may evntually believe the excuses and exert less effort in future. People dislike others who self-handicap so they run the risk of informal sanctions. Eastern cultures like to save face more than western cultures, and have a more independent view of themselves than ang moh. CHAPTER 6 Cognitive dissonance the feeling of discomfort when you hold 2 or more inconsistent cognitions. caused by an action that is usually against one’s usual, typically positive self-conception reduce dissonance by: changing behavior (stop smoking) changing dissonant cognitions (nah.. igs don’t cause cancer) adding new cognitions (my grandpa smoke so much also never kena) people experiencing dissonance deny or distort reality to reduce it. Impact bias when people think of how they will react to future negative events, they overestimate the intensity of duration of their negative emotional reactions. Like overestimate emo-time when u break up The need to maintain self-esteem leads us to rationa lise our behavior, which may not be rational thinking. Post-decisional dissonance when after making a decision you believe more in your choice and devaluate the rejected choice. he more important and more difficult to revoke the decision, the greater the dissonance. eg which car to by vs which cup irrevocability of a decision always increases dissonance and the motivation to reduce it. lowballing technique – initially quote low price, after customer decides to buy, say it was an error, actual price is higher. frequently customer will still buy. Because there is already a commitment of sorts. Decision to behave immorally Cheating – if u didnt see the chem paper you wouldn’t have gotten into SMU Dissonance theory says i’ll justify the action by minimising the negative aspects of the action i chose. . e. changing my attitude about cheating that it is not so bad and everyone does it. In terms of personal values: the cheat and non-cheat initially starts at the same attitude. after one decides their path, the attitude towards cheating diverges sharply as a consequence of actions, moving towards one extreme (from its not bad vs it’s not good diverge to cheating is no big deal. vs expel cheaters! ) Justification of effort tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they worked hard to attain. the tougher the initiation, the more we like the group (go OCS i like it so much) External justification reason for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual, in order to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment friend altered an ugly dress so now cannot return. since she already changed it, just tell her u like it. you don’t want to hurt her by saying it sucks. Internal justification reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself like attitude. when cannot find external justification, will attempt to find internal. if the same friend is very rich and buying another dress isn’t a problem, your external justifying reasons for lying to her is minimal. o you experience internal justification, by noticing some good things about the dress. eventually, you will like the fugly dress. This is counterattitudinal advocacy – occurs when we claim to have an opinion that differs from our true beliefs. when we do this with little external justification, and more internal justific, we will believe it’s more and more like the lie we told. Hypocrisy induction arousal of dissonance by making statements that counter peoples’ behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavor. This purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior counterattitudinal advocacy example. people who are made mindful of their hypocrisy between the statements they make and their initial beliefs begin to practice what they preach. Insufficient punishment dissonance when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in devaluing the forbidden activity or object. insufficient punishment causes insufficient external justification, which makes one internally justify. eg. child bully. f punishment is harsh – sufficient external justification (i dont beat him cos teacher will cane). if punishment is mild, (why am i not beating him up? ) the bully will refrain from beating, even though he wants to. but he lacks complete justification for not beating, so he will reduce dissonance by convincing himself that he does not really want to beat up the guy. Small reward or mild punishment leads to internal j ustification -; self-persuasion -; lasting change. Self-persuasion long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification. ore permanent that direct attempts at persuasion by others because persuasion takes place internally. Ben franklin effect when we do a favour for a person we do not like, we will end up liking the person more. How do u hate your victims? convince yourself that the ppl u killed are less than human convince yourself they deserved to be hurt similar to nazis convincing themselves jews are subhuman Dissonance-reducing behavior less prevalent in collectivist cultures on the surface. Also may be that self-justification occurs in collectivistic societies in more communal ways. In japan, dissonance reduced after saying a boring task is interesting. In addition, if a jap observes a person he knows and likes saying the that the boring task is interesting, he himself will experience dissonance and change attitudes. CHAPTER 8 Conformity Changing one’s behavior due to real or imagined influences of others Informational social influence influence of others leads us to conform because we see them as a source of info to guide behavior. We believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours, and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. women learning what an attractive body is from family, friends and media. en’s body must be muscular (mens health, gyms etc) Private acceptance conform to behavior of others because genuinely believe that the other people are correct Public compliance conform to behavior of others without necessarily believing what they do is correct. to avoid looking silly or foolish. By wanting to get things right, you are more susceptible to informat ional social influence. In low importance conditions – conform to others less than in high importance conditions. (same answers for CAT and AS midterm) The more important the decision is to us, the more we will rely on others for information. Contagion rapid spread of emotions or behavior through a crowd eg mass panic of war of the worlds Mass psychogenic illness occurrence of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause in a group of people. begins with one or a few reporting physical symptoms, then others who observe these sick people were more likely to fall sick too. Mass media also disseminates mass psychogenic illness quickly. maybe H1N1 swine flu n sars. Ambiguous situation The more uncertain you are, the more u will rely on others. Crisis situation we see how others respond and do likewise (stampedes) When others are experts he more expertise a person has, he will be a valuable guide in an ambiguous situation Social norms rules for acceptable behaviors, values and beliefs deviants can be ridiculed, punished, rejected Normative social influence when influence of others leads us to conform to be liked and accepted by them. (all the 369 tattoos on forehead) results in public compliance and not necessarily p rivate acceptance we tend to wear what’s stylish but do u really believe that mat caps are that nice? women’s attempts to create ideal body that u learnt through informational influence. men go gym Asch line (long line study) onformity occured because of fear of being the lone dissenter we conform for normative reasons because we dont want social disapproval even from complete strangers. also, we feel discomfort and tension when we stand up for beliefs and go against the group What if you resist normative social influence? group will try to align you with their beliefs by increased communication through teasing and long discussions if all fails, then start to say negative things and withdraw from me Cultural definitions of attractive body changes throughout the years. last time, fat girl was attractive, because looks healthy and fertile. Today, models all so skinny. Jap culture places great emphasis on conformity than american culture. Normative pressure to be skinny is more for Japs than americans Social impact theory likelihood that i respond to social influence by others depends on strength: how important to me is the group? immediacy: how close is the group to me in space and time during the attempt to influence me? number: how many people in the group? conformity will increase as the factors above increase. Group size and social impact Conformity increased when no of group increased. beyond 3 people, conformity does not increase much. Groups we identify strongly with and we like will exert more normative influence on us. Conforming to a group earns idiosyncracy credits (can occasionally deviate from group norms without sanction) When no one else in the group believes the same as you, normative social influence is the highest. You tend to conform to them. But if you have 1 ally, pressure to conform greatly decreases. (12 angry men example) when group’s culture is collectivistic, people are highly conforming because of factors like cooperation and loyalty. Conformity in collective cultures is a valued trait. but in western it is a negative trait. Hunting/Fishing culture (western) values assertiveness and independence. Agriculture (eastern) values value cooperative, conformity. Minority influence case where minority of group members influence behavior of majority. through consistency. keep expressing the same view, and different members of minority must agree with one another. majority eventually takes notice. minorities exert influence through informational means, not normative. Majorities obtain public compliance through normative influence Minorities obtain private acceptance through informational influence. 12 angry men best example. Injunctive norms eoples’ perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved by others. Motivate behavior through punishment or rewards. Littering is wrong. â€Å"DO NOT LITTER† more powerful in the face but promote normative conformity. (public compliance) Descriptive norms perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether behavior is app roved by others or not. Motivate behavior by informing people about what is effective or adaptive behavior. Littering is wrong (injunctive). There are times where people are likely to litter (Descriptive norms) â€Å"LITTERING IS NOT WHAT PEOPLE DO HERE† Less powerful in the face but promote informational influence. creates positive change. Boomerang effect by giving an â€Å"average† as a norm, people who usually did less than the average might end up increasing the activity to meet the â€Å"average†, thereby defeating the purpose of decreasing the undesirable behavior. For example alcohol drinking. â€Å"descriptive norm + injunctive norm† mixed messages will have a positive effect on cutting down undesirable behavior. â€Å"you used this much energy. On average, households use x amount of energy a day (descriptive – what society does). You used X+2 energy :( (the face showing disapproval is injunctive – what is viewed as wrong. ) Obedience to authority behavior of soldiers made killing seem like the right thing (informational influence) and soldiers wanted to avoid rejection from others (normative influence) my lai village massacre. Milgram’s studies Authority say â€Å"it is essential you continue† difficult to say no to insistent authority Normative influence – acting on their influence in order to be accepted by others When the authority left the room lack of informational influence When authority was replaced by a regular person he lacks expertise, no incentive to follow Importance of authority figures when 2 authority figures disagreed about whether to continue the study, thereby creating ambigous definition of the situation, 100% of the participants stopped conforming. Other reasons we obey Conforming to the wrong norm Once u follow one norm, it is hard to switch midstream. (slowly realising that delivering electric shocks was not good but still continued) Difficult to abandon the â€Å"obey authority† norm in Milgram because: experiment was fast-paced, preventing reflection on the situation. of self-justification. Initial agreement to do the test created internal pressure to obey subsequently. As participants delivered each shock, they justified in their heads, and each successive ladder made it hard to decide when to stop (215 and 230 volts not much different) of loss of personal responsibility. Experimenters are responsible for end results, and i am â€Å"just following orders† Unethical studies have Deception hiding true purpose of the study No true informed consent not told of the full details of study Psychological distress Not told they had right to withdraw Inflicted insight when the study ended, some learnt things about themselves that they didnt agree to beforehand (like obey orders to hurt someone) How to cite Hcm Chapter 10 11 12, Essay examples

C-Section Versus Vaginal Birth free essay sample

Although Doctors give their medical input on how women should give birth, shouldn’t the mother be the determining factor. It is important to know the risks and benefits for the pregnant mothers and babies so, future mothers can be aware. Furthermore we have to mention the risks of cesarean section to the pregnant woman so she can be aware of the consequences. So infection is one or nearby pelvic organs such as the bladder, kidneys. Increased blood loss, which is about twice as much as the vaginal birth. Decreased bowel function, the bowels function slows down for several days after this major surgery causing discomfort, distention and bloating. Respiratory complications caused by the general anesthesia. Longer stay in the hospital, like two to five days. Reactions to anesthesia, which can cause alterations in the blood pressure. Also because is not a natural process because the body is violated it can trigger post partum depression. Researchers did a study on the effects of a cesarean section on a mother after childbirth. They found that when a mother had an emergency C-section carried out, 46% of the women are at a heightened risk of developing depression after 3 months. The researchers say that the risk is increased by 6 times. In contrast the risks of vaginal birth could be if the women push for too long they can have a recto-vaginal fistula, wherein a passage forms between the rectum and vagina and the symptoms of this are nightmarish which is fecal matter through the vagina, flatus incontinence, pain and this condition is attributed to prolonged hours of labour. Vaginal birth is generally painful. Fear and tension change hormonal states, physically increasing levels of pain, often to a point where women can no longer cope without analgesics. Furthermore it can be messy. It is usually hard work and women often perspire heavily. There are other body fluids involved too like the amniotic fluid, urine and blood and there is the placenta. Also mothers can have incontinence or anal incontinence. However these symptoms can be prevented by practicing the episiotomy; a small incision into the perineum to enlarge the vaginal opening. The risk of post partum depression is lower by having a vaginal birth, 10% of the women can experience postpartum depression after 6 weks of giving birth moreover if the baby has any deformation or any health complications. In addition the risks of cesarean section to the baby are premature birth, because sometimes the due date is not accurate. Respiratory problems because the amniotic liquid isn’t expulsed by the pressure of the vaginal canal, babies born by cesarean are more likely to suffer asthma, abnormally fast breathing during the first few days after birth. Low Apgar score that is what rates a babys appearance, pulse, responsiveness, muscle activity, and breathing. Fetal injury, the surgeon can get cuts by accident when they are making the incision and another risk is no breastfeeding, the babies don’t want to get fed. In the other hand vaginal birth increases the risk of brain hemorrhage in newborns and brachial plexus birth injury; this injury resolves in a few weeks after the baby have been born. Furthermore lets talk about the benefits of a cesarean section. It has its benefits when there are complications in the pregnant mothers labor or delivery process. In some cases, baby is stubborn and doesn’t want to make its way down the birth canal, even though the mother pushes as hard as she can. In contrast if pregnant mothers decide to go through a cesarean section will know the due date and they won’t need to go through the contractions process, or feel pain between the vaginal tract and the perineum. In the long term, having a caesarean may help to protect against the slight risk of the uterus slipping into the vagina called prolapse. However a growing number of women choose the cesarean section nowadays. Sometimes a C-section is not only necessary, but also is the only way a woman can bring a baby into the world. In addition for a mother who has genital herpes, delivering her baby by C-section ensures that the infant will not be infected by going through vaginal delivery. This is also makes it possible for an HIV-infected mother to give birth. Often a C-section will be recommended when the labor is not progressing and there is a risk to the baby or the baby is in distress. If a woman has had a previous C-section sometimes a vaginal birth could be unsafe and a C-section will be performed. In contrast lets talk about the benefits of the vaginal birth. Delivering a baby vaginally triggers the release of oxytocin, a hormone known to influence maternal behavior in animals. Oxytocin is often known as the hormone of love because it is involved with lovemaking, fertility, contractions during labor and birth, and the release of milk in breastfeeding. It helps us feel good, and it triggers nurturing feelings and behaviors. Now a study shows that a mothers brain reacts more strongly to her baby’s needs if she had a vaginal birth. And mothers tend to be more responsive towards their babies when they cry and have a stronger connection with them. It also exist a lower risk of respiratory problems, when the baby passes through the e vaginal canal the pressure helps to expulse amniotic fluid in the babies lungs. As the baby passes through the birth canal it pick up a protective bacteria that they ingest, so this bacteria colonizes in their intestines and forms a strong immune system as they develop childhood into adulthood. In addition it is important to talk about the recovery after cesarean section, the recovery happens in stages, first they take the mothers into a post operative recovery room. They will remain in bed until the anesthesia effects go away. The vital signs of the mother will be monitored carefully as will the flow of blood. Usually is better to start moving after the surgery so the recovery will be faster, so starting making slow breathing exercises as they move slowly into the room. The average hospital stay after cesarean section is 2   4 days. And taken pain-killers may help as well. To sum up it is important to talk about the recovery process to the baby. The baby may need special care, particularly if that was the reason for the cesarean. So he or she may spend extra time in the nursery. If there were respiratory problems the baby may need to stay longer to be in observation an under treatment before going home, or if the baby was underweight it may have to have special care and diet. On the contrary the recovery process for a mother after a vaginal birth is while the mothers were pregnant, their bodies hoarded fluid. Then their bodies are returning to normal. The extra fluid, tissues and blood needed during pregnancy have to be dissolved. Theyll leave their body via your kidneys as urine. They will sweat more, swollen feet and ankles. Drinking enough water will helps to keep the bladder healthier and will helps in case of constipation. Cramps are another recovery symptom during this process, because the body is shrinking down back into its original shape The uterus will take approximately six to eight weeks to shrink to its pre-pregnancy size and the contractions may be felt as â€Å"after pains†. The production of prolactin, which is an hormone that stimulates the milk production as the oxytocin. After a vaginal birth the mothers will normally stay in a hospital for two days after a vaginal birth and maybe get some pain- killers to cope with the pain. It is also common to have bloodshot eyes, facial bruising and muscle/joint pain related to the strain of pushing during labour and this won’t last long. In conclusion there are many choices between cesarean section and vaginal birth that may influence the pregnant mothers taking a decision, such as health, risks and recovery process. However In this new millennium, women do have an alternative, one that has been provided by the wonders of modern technology women today have the choice, something that women in ages past. A caesarean is perceived as pain-free. In the other hand vaginal birth it is also widely acknowledged that the baby plays a part in deciding when the time is right to be born. It has been commented that babies born by elective caesarean section can show signs of being angry and do not appreciate being delivered before they are ready. Furthermore there are two options C-Section and vaginal birth. Words : 1518 References : Navelgazing Midwife, comp. - Navelgazing Midwife Blog What ARE the Risks of Vaginal Birth? Navelgazingmidwife (2008): 1. What ARE the Risks of Vaginal Birth. Web. 14 May 2013. lt;http://navelgazingmidwife. squarespace. com/navelgazing-midwife-blog/2011/7/28/what-are-the-risks-of-vaginal-birth. htmlgt;. Lowdon, Gina, and Debbie Chippington Derrick. Caesarean Section or Vaginal Birth – What Difference Does It Make? Web log post. Caesarean Section or Vaginal Birth. N. p. , 2002. Web. 14 May 2013. lt;http://www. bellybelly. com. au/birth/caesarean-section-or-vaginal-birthgt;. Enkin, Murray. A Guide to Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. Murphy, Magnus, and Pauline McDonagh Hull. Choosing Cesarean: The Natural Birth Plan. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2012. Print. Vaginal Delivery Releases Oxytocin.    Fit Pregnancy. N. p. , 2009. Web. 14 May 2013. lt;http://www. fitpregnancy. com/unsorted/vaginal-delivery-releases-oxytocingt;. Operative Delivery and Postnatal Depression: A Cohort Study.   Postnatal Depression-aetiological Factors. N. p. , 2002. Web. 14 May 2013. lt;http://www. bmj. com/content/330/7496/879gt;.

Philosophy of language Speech act theory

Abstract Speech acts are the basis on which day to day communications amongst humans is founded. It was however not until the mid 20th century that proper studies were carried out on this topic (Sosa Villanueva 2006). Over the years there have been heated debates and discussions on the topic particularly under the influence of the works philosophers such as J.L Austin and John Searle. The theory of speech acts has since then come to achieve importance in other fields aside from philosophy (Platts 1989).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy of language: Speech act theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The speech act theory has come to be recognized as very important in everyday life and particularly after the revelation by scholars that these speech acts do much more than describing reality. Studies that have taken place over the years since the speech act theory was proposed have come to distinguish the p hilosophy of language as an entity different from other philosophies (Platts 1989). An understanding of the speech act theory has also come to establish some basic structuring for the field of linguistics. This structure includes some various aspects used to describe reality. This essay seeks to elaborate on the concept of the speech act theory. To this end, an analysis of the works of the original proponents of the theory shall be provided. This shall basically summarize the works of John Searle and J.L. Austin. A further analysis of the theory shall be presented under the guide of the works of modern day philosophers. Introduction Speech acts are a set of actions that are performed through uttering of sounds with an aim of conveying a particular meaning; meanings which are characteristically linked to that combination of sounds. It is a well known fact that when an individual speaks, he/se wants to pass across a particular meaning and that whatever that individual says, or the set of sounds that come from his/her mouth already have an associated meaning. According to proponents of this theory, in order for one to have an understanding of a particular language, he/she must first comprehend the intention of the speakers of the said language when they use a particular combination of sounds. This theory is based on the simple premise that speech is an act in itself. The various combinations of sounds (speech) used to convey a particular meaning are not merely used to designate but they are self standing actions. J.L Austin’s study on speech acts J.L. Austin is one of the key proponents of the speech act theory and most of his work on the topic was published in 1978 after his death by his students in a book known as how to do things with words. Though this publication cannot be fully taken as Austin’s work it is a general representation of his views and there is a chance that his opinions would not have differed much had he published the book himsel f. According to Austin utterance was an act in itself. According to Austin (1978) there are two major distinctions of speech acts viz: constatives and perfomatives.Advertising Looking for essay on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Constatives are those utterances that tend to present reality as it is and can therefore be described as either true or false. Perfomatives on the other hand are described as either felicitous or infelicitous. Austin however comes to the agreement that a majority of statements are basically perfomative. This basically means that most people when speaking they are participating in one form of action or other. According to Austin, â€Å"Performing a locutionary act †¦ is roughly equivalent to uttering a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference, which is again equivalent to meaning in the traditional sense. Second, we said that we also perform illocutionary acts such as infor ming, ordering, warning, undertaking, etc., i.e. utterances which have a certain conventional force. Thirdly, we may also perform perlocutionary acts: what we bring about or achieve by saying something, such as convincing, persuading, deterring and even, say, surprising or misleading† (1978). According to Austin, the action that the speaker is involved is in essence, forming some realities that can only make sense when placed within the context of a particular society. For example, when one uses a definite perfomative sentence such as â€Å"I declare him the president† in the case of an election vote tallying in which the individual is confirming which contestant won the seat, he/she is in essence modeling an instance of social reality. That is, in this particular context, a leadership figure. J.L. Austin came up with three major characteristics or features of utterances which start with the basic structuring or words and conclude with the impact of those words on the a udience being targeted. These were locutionary acts, illocutionanary acts and perlocutionary acts. Locutionary acts are basically normal sentences that are aimed at conveying a particular meaning while illocutionary acts are those statements that carry some characteristic of force (such as warning and ordering). Perlocutionary acts are the end results of utterances i.e what is achieved as a consequence of saying something. These perlocutionary acts include persuasion and surprising. The major focus of Austin’s study was on illocutionary acts. This is because statements in this category clearly explaining the concept of performance as an aspect of speech. For instance a statement like â€Å"Don’t drink and drive† possesses the forceful nature of a warning. The same statement can be framed in such a way that it is a definite perfomative act, for example â€Å"The president is warning you, don’t drink and drive.† The person being addressed may hear th e utterance and receive it as a warning, then the person can be said to have been warned. This does not however mean that the person will behave in a way that will correspond to the warning. This therefore means that illocutionary acts such as the statement shown above can not be classified on a true/false basis. Austin in his studies insisted that individuals should understand that while analyzing a sentence, the focus should not be on the sentence itself but rather on how it is uttered.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy of language: Speech act theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More His maintenance that any utterance should be considered a performance act basically depended on the premise that analyzing a sentence or its constitutent words (locutionary acts) without placing them in the proper social context ended up explaining the net effect of the communication (illocutionary act) insufficiently (Sos a Villanueva 2006). This disregard of social context also greatly compromises the explanation of the effect of the utterance on the target audience (perlocutionary acts) Austin and other scholars of the speech-act theory have always strived to explain their ideas by use of what can be described as imaginary examples. In their arguments the social context of a statement is ignored in order to make literal point. Later, the same social context is added to the utterance in a way basic statements appear very complicated. In order to illustrate how utterances (perfomances) operate Austin summarized the illocutionary act as F(p). In this particular expression, F is the force behind the illocutionary act and p is proposition that the utterance is making John Searle and speech acts John Searle is one of the major philosophers who did an extensive study the speech act theory following its inception by J.L. Austin. He majorly focused his work around studies on illocutionary, locutionary and p erlocutionary acts. His findings suggested that an illocutionary act is said to have happened whenever someone talks or writes to another person (Searle, 1989). According to him illuctionary acts form the basis of all linguistic communication. He also agreed that an illocutionary act has to be intentional in its underlying nature. This basically means that a person has to have a reason for speaking and would not make an utterance if he/she did not intend to achieve something out of the action (Tsohatazidis 2007). The person being addressed also has a major part to play if the illocutionary act is said to have achieved its purpose. This hearer should be able to understand the intention of the speaker’s utterance by picking meaning from an already established way of decoding utterances (Searle, 1989). This is what is referred to as a perlocutionary effect. For example, an individual may say something like â€Å"Drive the car† with the intention that the hearer will recei ve this communication as a command and also that t hearer will respond by driving the car. However, according to Searle’s findings a speech act may end up affecting the hearer in a different way from the initial intention of the speaker. For instance, the speaker may say â€Å"Drive the car,† and the hearer may choose not to perform the action commanded and instead make his/her response by saying â€Å"I don’t feel like driving, you drive it yourself.†Advertising Looking for essay on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This according to Searle reveals that illocutionary acts are inherently intentional and is the basis on which meaning is founded. Perlocutionary depending on the circumstances in which they present may either be intentional or unintentional. This stand by Searle has in recent times been the subjects of debate. Individuals who do not support this stand have argued that it is the perlocutionary act that actually defines the intentions of the speaker. Though language can be used in uncountable ways, Searle in his literature proposes that there just a few things that can be accomplished by use of language. In the F(p) basic structuring of illocutionary acts, the propositional aspect of an utterance can take very many forms (Searle, 1989).. However Searle’s contention comes in the number of forces behind an illocutionary act. Searle suggests that the number of verbs that describe the eventual effect of the illocutionary act on the hearer limits the number of forces behind illocuti onary acts (McDowell 1980). In order to ensure that the argument on the forces behind the illocutionary acts is not merely based on the verbs associated with the act, Searle brings about the concept of the illocutionary point. The illocutionary point according to Searle is what the speaker when he/she performs an illocutionary act. This presents in the form of a verb aimed at describing the action that the sentence is involved in. this is basically the same as a schema that had been set earlier by Searle’s predecessor, J.L Austin (Tsohatazidis 2007). Searle in his studies on speech acts proposed the classification of illutionary points into five different categories, Viz.: Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives and Declaratives (Searle, 1989). Assertives. These are the kind of utterances that can either be judged as true or false. This because statements in such categories are mainly intendended to describe how things are in the physical world. Directives. These ar e utterances that intended at making the hearer respond in the same way that the particular statements are proposing. Commissives. These are utterances that demand that the hearer makes a commitment to the action being proposed by the speaker. Expressives. These are utterances that basically define how sincere the illocutionary act is. Declaratives: These are utterances that are intended at making changes to the world. They achieve this by defining the world as having undergone some changes. From the above classifications, Searle concluded that when an individual is speaking or writing, he/she can be said to be doing one or a number of the following actions: â€Å"Asserting, directing, commiserating, expressing or declaring† (McDowell 1980). Searle also declared that the force behind an illocutionary act comes about as a result of the speaker’s intentions. It is only when the hearer derives meaning from the illocutionary point/force that communication can be said to h ave taken place. Foundation of the speech act theory The best way to analyze the features that form the foundation of the speech act theory is to make a comparison between it and other theories that are presented in the philosophy of language. This part of the essays shall take into consideration the relations between speech acts and aspects like semantics, grammar and meaning. Any act that is presented by observable behavior takes place with an underlying intention. When a speaker says â€Å"you will go to school next week†, generally leaves the person being addressed wondering whether the utterance should be regarded as an order or as a prediction. This statement does not clearly describe the force behind it and hence the unexplained questions. There may be many theories may strive to explain the meaning behind the statement above, it is clear that the speakers intention was to state that the addressee will go to school in the following week (McDowell 1980). If someone asks what the force of the wording in sentence will essentially be seeking to know whether the statement should be received as an order or as a prediction (Michael 2007). He/She (addressee) would therefore not be particularly asking the speaker to add more explanations to the content of the statement. However whether the statement intended to issue an order or make a prediction will only be determined by some details within the statement that were not elaborated. From this proposal, the speaker may have meant either of these two things: 1) â€Å"I predict that you will go to school next week† or 2) I command you to go to school next week. In order to avoid contradictions arising as a result of an individual saying one thing while in essence he/she means another would require the understanding that for a single speech act to occur, a number of different utterances have to be made. Force and content as independent aspects Generally, a proposition on its own is not enough to elicit a particular response from the addressee. For example, by just suggesting that coal is black cannot be regarded as a comprehensive speech act. This is because for a speech act to be seen to have occurred, an illocutionary force has to be included alongside the proposition. This illocutionary force may present in the form of a command, an inquiry, an assertion, and so on (Kriptke 1980). It is by the nature or this illocutionary force that individuals can point out the unifying element in the following three statements, â€Å"You are driving the car†, â€Å"Are you driving the car?†, and â€Å"Drive the car!† The common factor amongst all the three sentences is the fact that the car is being to driven, with the first statement being an assertion, the second being an inquiry and the third being a command. It can also be said that the components of a communicative act will basically dictate the force of the particular act. That is why when someone says â€Å"you wi ll go to school nest week† it is impossible to find out the force behind the statement. However, the relationship between force and the components of a statement can be seen to be symbiotic in the sense that the force of an utterance can also determine the content of the statement (McDowell 1980). The is the basic distinguishing factor between speech act theory and other theories is that speech act theory analyzes statements in terms of two constituent components, viz., content and force. Speech acts and the existence of things/ideas Speech acts have to be distinguished from acts of speech. This is because an individual can perform a speech act such as making an inquiry without necessarily having to make an utterance (Michael 2007). For instance, a shrugging of shoulders can easily be used to mean that the individual is not aware of what is being asked. In the same way, one can make an utterance without it being a considered a speech act. For example, when one is testing a mic rophone, he/she can speak into the equipment without intending for anyone to respond to the message. In general, it is agreeable that in some instances, things can be made to be by simply saying that they should be (Michael 2007). It is physically impossible to say that a person can lose weight by simply saying it. However an individual can promise to buy someone a present by simply making the statement, â€Å"I promise to buy you a present.† The same can be used when religious leaders consolidate marriages, where it is common to here pastors and church ministers say, â€Å"I hereby declare you man and wife.† Such types of speech acts can actually happen without the speaker saying that he/she is performing the act. Components of illocutionary force Searle and Vanderveken (1985) strived to clearly distinguish between illocutionary forces that are used by the speakers of a particular language from all the illocutionary forces possible. In their publication, Searle and Va nderveken identified seven features that can be used to differentiate illocutionary forces. These are explained below: Illocutionary point. This is the basic intention of the speaker by the performance of a particular speech act. For example, the basic intention of a question is to invoke a person to respond in a suitable way. Strength of the illocutionary point. Two illocutionary acts may basically be trying to make the same point (Warnock 1989). However, the strength of the illocutionary force behind the two statements is what will be used to set the two apart. For example when someone requests an explanation and when he/she insists that an explanation be given, both statements will be aimed at getting the person being addressed to offer the explanation. However, insisting is stronger than requesting. Achievement mode. Various illocutionary points of a speech act have different special ways in which they are achieved. For instance, when one testifies that a certain service is the best and when he/she asserts the same, both utterances will be aimed at making a description of the service (Warnock 1989). However, testifying asserts the speaker has been a witness to the quality of service, while asserting does not necessarily require that he/she be a witness. The same can be said of ordering and requesting in the sense that both are intended at getting the person being addressed to do something only that when making an order the speaker has to be in an authoritative position (Kriptke 1980). Contents of the proposition. In some instances, illocutionary statements can only make sense provided the propositional composition of the statement is well accounted for (Recanati 1987). For example an individual can make a promise about something provided it happens in the future and it is within his/her control (Michael 2007). This essentially means that the person cannot promise something that has already happened. Preparatory conditions. This is the sum total of all the factors that must be taken into consideration for the speech act to be seen to have effectively taken place (Recanati 1987). These conditions however mostly depend on the social status of all the parties involved in the performance of the interlocution act. For instance, an individual cannot appoint a person unless he/she already has been given the power to do so by the institution in which he/she is in (Kriptke 1980). Conditions of sincerity. A majority of speech acts are a mainly performed with intention of expressing a particular chain of events in the psychology of the speakers. For instance, a question will express inquiry and an apology illustrates regret (Recanati 1987). A speech act is said to be sincere only if the speaker and his/her speech act are in the same level of psychological conditions. Strength of the conditions of sincerity. When analyzed from a certain viewpoint, two speech acts may be seen to be exactly the same (Recanati 1987). However, they may be seen to be different when viewed in terms of their psychological states. When a person makes a request and when he/she implores, both actions can be said to illustrate some element of desire (Warnock 1989). However, imploring tends to suggest a stronger level of desire for the particular need than a request. According to Searle and Vanderveken, all illocutionary forces can be analyzed based on the above seven aspects. Two illocutionary forces will be seen to be identical if they have the same levels of the seven values discussed above. Grammatical mood and force The relationship between the content of a speech act and the force behind the illocution can be described as symbiotic in the sense that one influences the other. However, some extraneous factors such as the grammatical mood can also be seen to influence the force of the utterance (Michael 2007). The statement â€Å"you will go to school tomorrow† is at basic level in the indicative mood grammatically. However, this grammatical mood cannot determine the force of the statement. This also applies to other moods. If someone hears another person say â€Å"drive the car†, he/she cannot immediately tell whether the person is issuing a command or just making an assertion. If the statement happens to be an assertion, then the speaker will have used the imperative mood. The same relationship can be seen with the interrogative mood. For instance, when a person hears another say â€Å"which visitors are coming†, he/she cannot immediately know whether the speaker has asked a question or whether it is just a statement. The speaker may have been saying â€Å"Patricia is wondering which visitors are coming.† Force conventionalism According to studies conducted by some philosophers in order for a speech act to happen, some form of convention will have to be applied (Warnock 1989). For instance for the statement â€Å"I promise to take you out for lunch† to regarded as a promise, all the words u sed in the statement must be in tandem with their conventional implications. There should also be an already established convention that establishes that when used in a particular way this set of words constitutes a promise (Warnock 1989). Conclusion Since J.L Austin did studies on the speech act theory in 1962, various philosophers have followed on his findings and even gone ahead to broaden the discussions on the subject. Most of the professionals in this school of thought have unanimously support the original findings by Austin that all forms of utterances are essentially independent actions in themselves. Another conclusion that has been agreed upon by a majority of modern day philosophers is that communication cannot occur if all the components of a speech act are not availed which implies that the speech act itself does not take place. In conclusion, it is worth noting that since the inclusion of the speech act theory in the field of philosophy has come to over the years chang e the definition of communicative practices as were hitherto known. The inclusion of propositional content and illocutionary forces into the study has served to not only enable sentences bear meaning but also provide explanations as to why statements that seem inherently alike may be defined as different. This essay has analyzed the speech act theory in detail. A summary of the work of J.L Austin has been provided followed by a summary of the work of his successor John Searle. A further review of the major concepts of the speech act theory has been presented based around literature by later-day philosophy scholars. The theory of speech acts is in itself a wide field of study in itself and could only be briefly detailed in this essay. Reference List Austin, J.L. 1978. Logic and language. Oxford: Blackwell Kriptke, A.S. 1980. Naming and necessity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press McDowell, J. 1980. Meaning, communication, and knowledge. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Michael, M. 2007. An Introduction to the Philosophy of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Platts, M. 1979. Ways of Meaning: an introduction to a philosophy of language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Recanati, F. 1987. Meaning and Force: The Pragmatics of Performative Utterances. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Searle, R.J. 1969. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Searle, R.J. Vanderveken. 1985. Foundations of Illocutionary Logic. CUP Archive. Sosa, E. Villanueva, E. 2006. Philosophy of Language. Boston MA: Blackwell Tsohatazidis, S. 2007. John Searle’s philosophy of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Warnock, G.J. 1989. J.L. Austin: Arguments of the philosophers history workshop  series. United Kingdom: Taylor Francis This essay on Philosophy of language: Speech act theory was written and submitted by user Bo B. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Roman Law Essays (4556 words) - Mythology, Roman Mythology, Trojans

Roman Law Essays (4556 words) - Mythology, Roman Mythology, Trojans Roman Law The Romans have had almost every type of government there is. They've had a kingdom, a republic, a dictatorship, and an empire. Their democracy would be the basis for most modern democracies. The people have always been involved with and loved their government, no matter what kind it was. They loved being involved in the government, and making decisions concerning everyone. In general, the Romans were very power-hungry. This might be explained by the myth that they are descended from Romulus, who's father was Mars, the god of war. Their government loving tendencies have caused many, many civil wars. After any type of government, the change has been made with a civil war. There have also been many civil wars between rulers. But it all boils down to wanting to be involved in government. When the Greeks finally entered Troy after ten long years of siege, a man named Aeneas escaped the city with his father, Anchises, and his son, Ascanius. They went to Mt. Ida, where they were to meet Aeneas' wife, Creusa, but she never showed up. Saddened, Aeneas acquired a boat and sailed around the Mediterranean. He bounced around from Asia Minor to Greece to Crete looking for a place to found a new Troy, but he couldn't find a satisfactory place. As told by Homer in the Aeneid, Aeneas was cared for by the gods. Venus, in particular, was very worried about him. She asked Jupiter, king of the gods about him, and he said this: Since you are so consumed with anxiety for Aeneas, I shall turn forward far The hidden pages of fate and speak of the future. He shall conduct a great campaign for you And conquer all Italy and its haughty peoples. He shall impose laws on his own people And build walled cities for them; the third summer Shall see him rule in Latium, the third winter Of warfare see the Rutulians [an Italian tribe] subdued. But his son Ascanius... It is he who shall consolidate your power- For thirty years with all their turning months; Then shall he move his capital from Lavinium To Alba Longa, which he shall fortify To the uttermost; and there a line of kings... Shall reign and reign till Ilia [Rhea Silvia], a priestess Of royal blood, bear twins begotten by Mars; And one of these, Romulus, fostered by a she-wolf, And joyfully wearing her tawny hide, shall rule And found a city for Mars, a new city, And call his people Romans, after his name. For them I see no measure nor date, I grant them Dominion without end. Yes, even Juno... Even she will mend her ways and vie with me In cherishing the Romans, the master-race, The wearers of the Toga. So it is willed.(Nardo 13) Finally, he wound up at the mouth of the Tiber River in Italy. He went inland up the river, which was a miracle in itself, because the river is very swift. He found Latium, ruled by King Latinus, and married his daughter, Lavinia. With King Latinus' permission, Aeneas and Lavinia founded a city called Lavinium, where they ruled side by side for many years. When Aeneas died, his son Ascanius took over. Ascanius founded a new city, which he called Alba Longa, and made it his capital. Now we advance four centuries. The king of Alba Longa is Numitor. He had a jealous brother named Amulius, who seized the throne and drove out Numitor. To prevent Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, from having children who could claim the throne, Amulius made her a celibate priestess. While she was a priestess, Mars, the god of war, came and visited her and she had twin boys named Remus and Romulus (Burrell 7). When Amulius found out about the twins, he was furious. He ordered Rhea imprisoned and the boys drowned on the Tiber. The slave who was ordered to drown them felt pity for them, and instead sent them down the river in a basket. When they landed, a she-wolf found them and nursed them because her cubs had just been killed and she was still fertile. Romulus and Remus were found by a shepherd named Faustulus, who took them home to his wife to raise them. As they grew up, being sons of Mars, they turned out to be very athletic and natural leaders, especially of the local boys. When

Push and pull factors in Syrian migration Research Paper - 1

Push and pull factors in Syrian migration - Research Paper Example By August 2012 the number of Syrian refugees was believed to have reached 200,000. By March the following year, the number had reached to 1.2 million with a gradual increase expected, according to the statistics on the rate of their increase. By the end of the year 2013 there were more that 2 million Syrian refugees. About 12.5% of the total Syrian population are believed to be refugees in foreign countries. The destination of Syrian refugees includes: Lebanon; Turkey; Jordan; Iraq; Egypt; Algeria; Sweden; Bahrain; Germany; Libya; Italy; Bulgaria; Argentina; Armenia; Romania; Nagorno-Karabakh Republic Russia; Gaza strip; Macedonia; and the United States of America. These destinations are arranged in the descending order according to the number of refugees accommodated. The digits used are believed to be estimates since the Syrian refugees have been moving to other countries through both legal and illegal means. Most of the people who fled Syria are those that have no ability to face the violence that is in Syria. Statistics have proved that more than half of the refugees who flee Syria are children. Children are always the most affected by civil wars, especially due to the fact that they are naà ¯ve and physically incapable to cope with the hard situations that are always brought about by civil wars or any other kind of long term violence (Ullah 167). A majority of the remaining refugees are women. Despite the fact that they might not be naà ¯ve they do not have the physical capability to cope with their male counterparts during civil wars such as that has been experienced in Syria since 2011. The kind of work that Syrian refugees do in the foreign countries highly depends on whether or not they have working permits. Most of the Syrian refugees lack a work permit as a result of not being able to get residential papers. In most host countries, it is always harder for the

External and Internal Environmental Analysis Essay - 6

External and Internal Environmental Analysis - Essay Example Companies should assess their competitive position to come up with strategies to make them outstanding in the industry (Albright 2004). Groups come up with organizational structures that aid the in running the firm operations. These structures affect organization’s performance. Hilton Worldwide Holdings Inc. aims at achieving its goal of the growth of their business. There are several factors that compromise business performance thus there is a need for evaluating them to have successful business growth (Muthaih and Venkatesh, 2012). The external environment is those factors found outside the business and affects how it operates. It may affect the company ability to achieve its goals and objectives in an efficient way. Regardless of operational planning there is a need to assess the external environment. In evaluating this situation, there is a need to view it in terms of both opportunities and threats (Cheermack et al., 2007). It exists in three dimensions, the remote, industrial and operating environment. For Hilton Worldwide Holdings Inc. to grow as proposed analysis tools have to be used to evaluate these factors. Some of these elements can be changed by the firm’s operations while others push the business to change its structure to counteract its negative impacts. The organization intends to look into the three elements to ensure tha t changes in external factors do not take it by surprise. The remote environment comprises of a set of forces originating beyond an enterprise’s operating situation. They occur irrespective of any single organizations management activities. They involve factors such as technological, economic, social, political and legal opportunities. They work differently to create constraints, threats and also opportunities for the firm. At times, the elements work together to make a meaningful impact to the company for example economy and infrastructure can contribute to each other’s success in affecting

Should Animals be Used in Medical Research Paper

Should Animals be Used in Medical - Research Paper Example When preliminary tests on animals provide promising results, only then these studies are conducted on human beings. Therefore, the use of animals in medical research has been extremely useful in understanding the human body and the changes in functions when dealing with a disease. Hence, animals provide a good testing ground to conduct medical research and should continue to be used within the limits of the code of ethics. This paper will examine the historical background concerning the use of animals in medical research and closely examine the different perspectives pertaining to it. It will also elaborate my arguments supporting the use of animals in medical research and why I feel it is especially critical to do so in this day and age. Relevant History and Background The use of animals in medical and behavioral studies can be traced back to ancient Greek writings which record that Aristotle, the Greek philosopher conducted experiments on live animals. In fact, Aristotle argued tha t, â€Å"animals, having sense perception but lacking reason, fall below humans in a natural hierarchy and are therefore appropriate resources for human purposes† (DeGrazia 3). ... Traditionally, the moral status of animals has been shaped by religion and philosophy. The Bible mentions that God created human beings in His own image and gave him authority over all that was created – including animals. According to DeGrazia, the Bible reinforces the Aristotelian view of animals of using them for human purposes (3). Christian philosophers like Augustine and Thomas Aquinas also emphasized that since animals cannot reason, they are subordinate to human beings (DeGrazia 3). However Hinduism and Islamic beliefs consider animals to have some degree of rationality and at times consider them on par with human beings (DeGrazia 3). Current medical research practices ensure only the least number of the most appropriate animal is used. Again, the U.S. federal law requires all animals to be treated humanely and that they should experience the least amount of pain and distress when used in medical research. For as long as animals have been used for medical research, the re have been people and groups fighting for animal rights through writings and peaceful protests. However, as the experimentation on animals increased over the years, so did the controversy and criticism concerning it, especially with respect to the practice of vivisection – a process which involves conducting surgery on living organisms, usually animals, for physiological or pathological investigations (DeGrazia). Overview of Different Positions on This Issue Broadly there are two opposing positions concerning the issue of the use of animals in medical research: In Favor of Animal Research: The major argument of people favoring animal research is that using animals for medical research is acceptable if the

Community Support Intervention for Alcohol Abuse

Community Support Intervention for Alcohol Abuse Community support intervention (s) for alcohol abuse in adults living in Glasgow, UK; A Proposal Introduction International perspective on alcohol abuse Alcoholism is a collective term for alcohol related disorders including, but not limited to, alcohol abuse, binge drinking and alcohol dependence (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2016). Global alcohol consumption levels in 2010 were estimated to be 6.2 litres of pure alcohol in persons aged 15 years and above (WHO, 2017). In the United Kingdom, the Health and Social Care Information Centre (2014) recommended that among the adult population group, women and men should not consume more than 3 and 4 units of alcohol a day, respectively. Furthermore, existing evidence trends on alcohol consumption levels indicate that the greater the economic prosperity/wealth of the country, the higher the alcohol consumption levels and thus the lower the number of abstainers among the populations (WHO, 2017). Additionally, statistics from the WHO (2017) indicate that in 2012, approximately 3.3 million recorded deaths globally were due to alcohol abuse, and at least 15.3 million people are thought to have a drug and/or alcohol disorder. Furthermore, 7.6% and 4% of the 3.3 million deaths globally were observed in males and females, respectively (WHO, 2017). Similarly, 139 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) recorded in 2012 were associated with alcohol consumption globally (WHO, 2017). Therefore, harmful alcohol consumption is associated with negative health consequences which impact on the quality of life of individuals and their families, as well as society as a whole due to reduced productivity levels and financial costs associated with treating and managing alcohol misuse related conditions (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [NICE], 2011). Alcohol abuse relative to Scotland In 2007, a joint research undertaken by the Glasgow City Council, Strathclyde Police and NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde indicated that increased rates of harmful alcohol consumption have been observed across Scotland, with an estimated increase expected in the next decade (Glasgow City Council, Strathclyde Police and NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, 2007). The report indicated that at least 20.7% of all hospital admissions in the Glasgow area were associated with harmful alcohol consumption, which was associated with a cost of  £207 million to manage appropriately. In 2015, a survey by NHS Health Scotland, indicated that 1 in 4 Scottish people drink at hazardous levels and about 36% and 17% of men and women, respectively, consume more than 14 units of alcohol each week (NHS Health Scotland, 2015). Furthermore, at least 1,150 alcohol related deaths were recorded in Scotland and 386 of these were women while 764 were males, a figure expected to increase if alcohol misuse is not tackled in Scotland (National Records of Scotland, 2015). Additionally, in those aged between 45 and 59 years, largest proportion of alcohol related deaths are observed each year in Scotland (National Records of Scotland, 2015). Nevertheless, although the statistics indicate that the rates of harmful alcohol consumption have declined over the last few years in Scotland, the rates are on average still relatively higher than those recorded in Wales and England, and therefore more investment in managing alcohol misuse is still a public health priority (Monitoring and Evaluating Scotlands Alcohol Strategy (MESAS) work programme, 2014). Research undertaken by the Information Service Division, NHS Health Scotland (2015/2016) indicated that about 90% and 10% of alcohol related hospital admissions were to either to general acute hospitals or psychiatric hospitals, respectively. Similarly, 48,420 patients are thought to have accessed primary care equating to 94,630 alcohol related consultations in 2012/2013; higher rates observed in those aged 65 years and above (Scottish Public Health Observatory [ScotPHO], 2017). Furthermore, 25% of all trauma patients and 33% of all major traumas in 2015 were associated with alcohol misuse (The Scottish Trauma Audit Group, 2016). In terms of societal costs of alcohol misuse, a report by the Scottish Government (2010) indicated that alcohol related harms cost about  £3.6 million annually in social care, crime, productivity, health as well as wider/indirect costs in Scotland. In addition, at least  £267 million each year is spent by the NHS Health Scotland on alcohol related care, and  £727 million a year on managing alcohol related crimes across Scotland (Scottish Government, 2010). Alcohol policies and interventions are often developed with the main aim of reducing alcohol misuse as well as alcohol related social and health burden (NHS Health Scotland, 2015). Additionally, these policies or interventions may be formulated and implemented at a local, regional, national, sub-national and global level to ensure alignment and consistency of combating alcohol misuse across care settings (WHO, 2017). Nevertheless, the NHS Scotland in joint collaboration with other government bodies such as the Police have expressed a commitment to monitoring and evaluating alcohol misuse in Scotland with the aim of reducing the alcohol related health and social burden (Glasgow City Council, Strathclyde Police and NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, 2007). The aim of this essay is to explore the extent of alcohol misuse in Scotland and provide community support to the affected populations through the implementation of a relevant strategy/intervention to reduce harmful alcohol consumption. The epidemiological consideration of alcohol misuse/abuse will be discussed first and thereafter followed with the identification of the relevant strategy or intervention in combi nation with the implementation procedures, monitoring and evaluating its progress, based on a pre-specified assessment criteria/framework, to ensure that it continues to meet the needs of the population affected by alcohol misuse. Epidemiological consideration to exploring the level of alcohol abuse among adults in Scotland. Research suggests that the most effective alcohol interventions and policies are those that have combined measures that address the issue at a population level (WHO, 2007). Nevertheless, national levels should be aligned to local strategies to ensure consistency in the delivery of care/support for alcohol misuse (Faculty of Public Health UK, 2016). Therefore, to initiate a strategy or intervention to combat alcohol misuse in Scotland it is fundamental that the epidemiology of alcohol misuse (such as risk factors, aetiology, incidence, prevalence, prognosis, current service evaluation and the unmet need) is established based on evidence based medical literature which can take the form of systematic reviews or population longitudinal studies or clinical trials (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2011). Furthermore, having a thorough understanding of the needs and priorities of those affected as well as the payors and clinicians need to be put in to consideration prior to initiating an intervention to combat alcohol misuse (Griffin and Botvin, 2011). This can be undertaken by conducting a needs assessment which aims to identify health issues of the patients as well as establishing resource allocation to help plan, and implement a strategy or intervention that meets the unmet need of alcohol abusers (Care Informatio n Scotland, 2015). The health needs assessment should primarily be undertaken by a team of stakeholders representing various relevant perspectives including, but not limited to, healthcare professionals, patients or patient groups and payors with the aim of ensuring that all perspectives to reduce health inequalities have been explored, thus providing confidence that the proposed intervention to combat alcohol misuse will be accessible to relevant persons across care settings (NICE, 2005). Both quantitative and qualitative data are fundamental in identifying and establishing the community profiles of those affected by alcohol misuse in Scotland (NICE, 2014). A qualitative framework enables the researchers to obtain an in-depth understanding of the views and perception of those consuming alcohol at harmful levels and therefore the themed information can be used to shape the focus and implementation of the proposed intervention (Brownson et al. 2009). Additionally, qualitative framework can be utilised in terms of focus groups, audio recordings and one to one interviews across different sample sizes and sample types to ensure generalisability of study findings across adults in Scotland who misuse alcohol (Wilson et al. 2013). On the other hand, quantitative framework helps researchers to decide on what to focus on within the research based on data collected from participants, and thus quantify the data by analysing it in an unbiased and objective manner (Cairns et al. 20 11). Therefore, this will help researchers profile the trends of alcohol misuse in Scotland and provide potential explanations of the observed relationships between analysed variables (Jones and Sumnall, 2016). Therefore, both quantitative and qualitative data should be put in to consideration by the various stakeholders to help make informed decisions on the most appropriate intervention to tackle alcohol misuse in Scotland (Monitoring and Evaluating Scotlands Alcohol Strategy (MESAS) work programme, 2014). The nature of the data to be collected (i.e. primary and/or secondary) is often determined by the research question at hand (NICE CG21, 2010). For example, with regards to alcohol misuse, both primary and secondary data are critical because in combination, the data provide a comprehensive representation of the extent of the alcohol misuse among adults in Scotland, which could be limited if one or the other were to be used to inform policy making (Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 2008). Furthermore, the hierarchy of evidence is dictated by the nature of the study design informing the evidence, and thus various stakeholders will put different weight to the study evidence obtained from various study designs (Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network, 2015). For example, research recommendations consider randomised controlled trials (RCTS) as the superior study design due to the limited bias associated with the design and exploration of evidence, and therefore evidence from RCTs is considered to be of robust and of high quality (NICE, 2006; Higgins and Green, 2011). Subsequent from the RCTS, the other study designs of interest include cohort studies, case-control, case series and expert, in that order, are considered to be useful in answering certain types of research questions (Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 2008). Nevertheless, meta-analyses and systematic reviews of RCTs are given more weight in the hierarchy to be able to provide robust data to inform deci sion making. However, it should be noted that conducting a RCT to establish alcohol misuse would be considered unethical by various stakeholders and therefore, qualitative studies or real world evidence studies would be more plausible to explore the concept in detail (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2017). Therefore, after consideration of the nature/type of evidence in combination with the epidemiology of alcohol misuse among adults in Scotland, a brief intervention that would be considered both clinically and cost effective would be a plausible approach (WHO, 2014). The brief intervention incorporates policy guidelines, training, as well as education on alcohol misuse to help patients and healthcare providers make informed decision on its applicability (Anderson et al. 2009). Brief interventions are preferred over other types, such as alcohol taxation because they aim to provide health and social support to alcohol abusers and thus they are more likely to be motivated to help change attitudes towards harmful drinking (Institute for Alcohol Studies, 2013). Therefore, a plausible intervention should include various phases such as planning, preparing other stakeholders for the intervention, establishing an intervention team, identifying consequences/benefits and harms as well as sharing information on the intervention with the relevant stakeholders and ensure that informed consent from users of the intervention is put in to consideration prior to implementation (Holland, 2016). Monitoring and evaluation of the intervention Monitoring and evaluation of an ABI is fundamental in ensuring that the intervention is fit for purpose and delivers expected outcomes to those in need of care (National Collaborating Centre for Methods and Tools, 2010). Monitoring and evaluation of an intervention follows a set of criteria which measures the effectiveness of the intervention such as the RE-AIM model which aims to evaluate the Reach, Efficacy, Adoption, Implementation and Maintenance (Glasgow et al. 1999). For example, the Reach category puts in to consideration the proportion and characteristics of alcohol abusers that access the intervention and can be assessed on an individual level which aims to provide first-hand information on what patients thoughts are (NICE, 2014). However, given the difficulty in accessing information on the non-respondents it is challenging to establish why the intervention was not deemed essential to suit their needs and therefore, this creates challenges quantifying the cost effectiveness of an intervention that was designed to reach a large proportion of patients (Vogt et al. 1998). Efficacy of the ABI considers the measuring of both positive and negative outcomes to ensure that a balanced evaluation of evidence is assessed on the value of the intervention to individuals who want to reduce alcohol misuse (National Collaborating Centre for Methods and Tools, 2010). Additionally, the ABI should aim to collect behavioural, biologic, and quality of life outcomes which are fundamental in assessing whether patients are benefiting from the program or otherwise (NHS Scotland, 2017). Additionally, it is essential to establish if payors are investing in a valuable intervention, and if healthcare professionals are delivering the strategy correctly or it needs to be adapted for each individual to optimize outcomes (Kaplan et al. 1993). The adoption of the ABI takes in to perspective the proportion of care settings utilising the intervention across Scotland (NHS Scotland, 2017). This could be within the community, hospitals, and work and leisure settings to ensure that the hard to reach populations are given the opportunity to access the intervention without incurring significant costs (Alcohol Focus Scotland, 2017). Although direct observation may provide measurable outcomes, audits, surveys and interviews may provide further evidence to support the monitoring and evaluation of the ABI (Scottish Government, 2017). Similarly, the implementation and maintenance of the ABI is fundamental in assessing the extent to which the intervention has been executed in the real world setting as intended, as well as the extent to which the intervention is sustained over a pre-specified period of time (WHO, 2014). Implementation can be assessed at an individual level, and maintenance may be accessed both at an individual and organi sation level to ensure alignment and consistency in the delivery of the ABI. Nevertheless, the RE-AIM framework across the five categories is not often put in to consideration across settings to evaluate alcohol interventions, and therefore the time points for evaluation of optimal effectiveness of the ABI in Scotland are often dependent on amount of available resource within the care settings which make generalisability of findings across settings challenging to ascertain (Institute for Alcohol Studies, 2013; Scottish Government, 2017). Conclusions Alcohol misuse presents a significant burden on the health and social aspects of adults in Scotland both in the short and long term. Given the quantifiable burden in the alcohol misuse related illness, crime and costs of management, this has necessitated a change in the harmful consumption levels of alcohol in Scotland through the implementation of ABIs in conjunction with national and local policies. The epidemiology of alcohol abuse in Scotland through existing literature from both primary and secondary data sources is key in providing a comprehensive insight in to the alcohol misuse circumstances over time, and how the issue can be addressed.   Likewise, the implementation of ABI across care settings in Scotland ensures that the population at need is given access to care through education and training on the harms of excessive alcohol consumption in the short and long term. Additionally, this ensures that the patients are given the option to receive care, after informed consent, and are able to take control of their care. Therefore, healthcare providers have the duty of care to promoting confidence among alcohol abusers to help them come up with various coping strategies to change their attitudes and behaviours. For those that decline care, the opportunity to access care in the future should be provided, but most importantly their decisions should be respected. 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